What is Photophosphorylation Photophosphorylation is the process by which ADP gets converted into ATP, utilizing light energy from photosynthesis. It synthesizes energy-rich ATP molecules by transferring a phosphate group into an ADP molecule in the presence of light. The process occurs in the chloroplasts of cells, specifically in the thylakoid membranes. In photophosphorylation or light-dependent reactions, the light gets absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigment molecules. Then, this light energy is used to create a high-energy electron donor and a lower-energy electron acceptor....

Graded (or generator) potentials are local changes in the membrane potential found in a neuron’s dendrites and cell body in response to input from other neurons. When neurotransmitters bind to the postsynaptic membrane of target cells, it causes the opening of the ligand-gated ion channels. These openings cause local changes in the membrane potential. Graded potentials, thus, play a vital role in the communication between neurons. They are called ‘graded’ because they can vary in magnitude based on the change in the membrane potential instead of all or none....

In magnetism, the magnetic field provides the direction and strength of the magnetic force in a region of space. For example, a current-carrying wire produces circular magnetic field lines around it, whose magnitude and direction can be found by Ampere’s Law and the right-hand thumb rule. However, directly working with the magnetic field can be challenging, especially for complex geometries. It is where a quantity called the magnetic vector potential becomes useful....

What is Active Transport Active transport is an energy or ATP-dependent, cellular transport process that selectively moves substances from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration or ‘against the concentration gradient’, with the help of a membrane protein. Active Transport Characteristics of Active Transport Substances are transported against their concentration gradient It is a fast process Requires cellular energy Needs a helper transmembrane protein structure called ‘pumps’ for transport Types of Active Transport with Examples 1) Primary Active Transport A primary active transport process is one in which metabolic energy obtained from the breakdown of high-energy phosphate molecules – adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is used to transport solutes across the cell membrane....

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Asexual reproduction is a reproduction mode in living beings that must have a single parent. Thus, unlike sexual reproduction, it does not require two sex cells or gametes to fuse. Asexual reproduction produces offspring genetically the same as the parent. It is found in both prokaryotes and single-celled and multi-celled organisms eukaryotes. Asexual Reproduction Some other characteristics of asexual reproduction are: The organisms multiply and grow fast Have a short generation time Fertilization of the gametes does not occur Types of Asexual Reproduction There are many forms of asexual reproduction....

A desmosome, also known as a macula adherens , is one of animal cells’ anchoring junctions. They are cell-cell, intercellular junctions that connect adjacent cells in tissues that experience stress. Giulio Bizzozero, an Italian pathologist, first discovered it. Josef Schaffer coined the term ‘desmosome’ in 1920. Location of Desmosomes in a Cell They are found in animal tissues, for example, cardiac muscle tissue, bladder tissue, gastrointestinal mucosa, and epithelial tissue of the outer skin....

What is Drag Force The resistance offered by a fluid, like air and water, is called the drag force or drag when an object moves through it. It acts in a direction opposite to the object’s motion. It is generated by the relative velocity between the solid object and the fluid. Whether the object or fluid is moving, drag occurs as long as there is a difference in their velocities. Because it is resistant to motion, drag tends to slow down the object....

What are Electrons Electrons are one of the three types of subatomic particles that make up an atom. The other two types are protons and neutrons. Unlike protons and neutrons, electrons are fundamental particles that cannot be divided further into smaller particles. The standard symbol for an electron is e or e-. Lightning during the rainy season is a natural source of electrons that powers various devices such as electric bulbs, television sets, motors, and mobile phones....

Fibrous roots are adventitious roots that form a dense network of fine, thread-like roots that spread out in various directions from the base of the plant’s stem. Unlike taproots, which have a single dominant root, fibrous roots consist of multiple small roots of similar size and length. Fibrous Root They are universally found in monocotyledonous plants like grasses (wheat, rice, and corn), orchids, and ferns. Most cacti also have a fibrous root system....

Fragmentation is a type of asexual reproduction in some multicellular organisms. As the name suggests, the parent body is split into pieces. Each piece develops into a mature, complete individual identical to its parent. Fragmentation is found to occur in fungi such as yeasts and mushrooms. Plants such as ferns, mosses, and cyanobacteria also reproduce by fragmentation. In animals, sea stars are the most common example, although annelid worms, sponges, and flatworms also reproduce by this method....

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‘Para’ means ‘near,’ and ‘patria’ means ‘country. In parapatric speciation, two sister groups of a species develop reproductive isolation while they are still exchanging genes. Here, populations are geographically adjacent rather than being completely separated. Unlike allopatric speciation, in which populations are isolated by physical barriers, or sympatric speciation, which occurs within a shared habitat, parapatrically separated groups have overlapping geographic areas. Due to this partial separation, the gene flow is limited between the two groups, which allows other factors like natural selection, mutation, and genetic drift to cause divergence over time....

When light moves from one medium, such as air, to another, like glass, it bends at the boundary between them. This bending occurs because light travels at different speeds in different materials. The refractive index is a measure of this bending, calculated by comparing the speed of light in air to its speed in the medium. Materials with higher refractive indices, like sapphire, bend light more sharply than those with lower refractive indices, such as water....

The trophic levels refer to the position of a group of organisms in the food chain, food web, or ecological pyramid based on their feeding pattern. They are shown in a series or a succession to represent energy flow from one tropic level to another. The position of the trophic level depends upon the number of steps the organism takes from the start of the food chain until its consumption....

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Zener diodes are semiconductor diodes that operate in the reverse breakdown region of their current-voltage (I-V) characteristic curve. Zener diodes are crucial in maintaining a constant voltage in electronic circuits. Their unique characteristics make them an essential component for voltage regulation and protection. Symbol A unique symbol in circuit diagrams represents a Zener diode. It consists of a regular diode symbol with two diagonal lines drawn across it. This symbol helps identify its functionality as a voltage regulator, distinguishing it from other diodes....

Allopatric speciation is a type of speciation event that occurs when a population becomes geographically isolated from the main homogenous group such that they cannot interbreed. Geographic isolation includes physical barriers like mountains, rivers, or oceans. It can occur even if the physical barrier is a little porous and a few individuals cross the barrier and mate with members of the other group. They can only become new species if the gene flow between the two groups is greatly reduced if it is not completely reduced to zero....

Ammonification is a part of the nitrogen cycle that occurs when microorganisms decompose dead organic matter of plants and animals, releasing fixed nitrogen in the soil, sediment, or water. It is thus crucial for providing living organisms with the source of nitrogen they need for their growth and survival. The diagram shows the process of ammonification within the nitrogen cycle. Ammonification Here, the organic nitrogen in the tissues of living organisms is mineralized to form inorganic ammonia or ammonium ions....